NOUN AND PRONOUN

Common types of pronouns found in the world's languages are as follows:

• Personal pronouns stand in place of the names of people or things:
  • Subject pronouns are used when the person or thing is the subject of the sentence or clause. English example: I like to eat chips, but she does not.
    • Second person formal and informal pronouns (T-V distinction). For example, vous and tu in French. There is no distinction in modern English though Elizabethan English marked the distinction with "thou" (singular informal) and "you" (plural or singular formal).
    • Inclusive and exclusive "we" pronouns indicate whether the audience is included. There is no distinction in English.
    • Intensive pronouns, also known as emphatic pronouns, re-emphasize a noun or pronoun that has already been mentioned. English uses the same forms as the reflexive pronouns; for example: I did it myself (contrast reflexive use, I did it to myself).
  • Object pronouns are used when the person or thing is the object of the sentence or clause. English example: John likes me but not her.
    • Direct and indirect object pronouns. English uses the same oblique form for both; for example: Mary loves him (direct object); Mary sent him a letter (indirect object).
    • Reflexive pronouns are used when a person or thing acts on itself. English example: John cut himself.
    • Reciprocal pronouns refer to a reciprocal relationship. English example: They do not like each other.
  • Prepositional pronouns come after a preposition. No distinct forms exist in English; for example: Anna and Maria looked at him.
  • Disjunctive pronouns are used in isolation or in certain other special grammatical contexts. No distinct forms exist in English; for example: Who does this belong to? Me.
  • Dummy pronouns are used when grammatical rules require a noun (or pronoun), but none is semantically required. English example: It is raining.
  • Weak pronouns.
• Possessive pronouns are used to indicate possession or ownership.
  • In a strict sense, the possessive pronouns are only those that act syntactically as nouns. English example: Those clothes are mine.
  • Often, though, the term "possessive pronoun" is also applied to the so-called possessive adjectives (or possessive determiners). For example, in English: I lost my wallet. They are not strictly speaking pronouns^{[citation needed]} because they do not substitute for a noun or noun phrase, and as such, some grammarians classify these terms in a separate lexical category called determiners (they have a syntactic role close to that of adjectives, always qualifying a noun).
• Demonstrative pronouns distinguish the particular objects or people that are referred to from other possible candidates. English example: I'll take these.
• Indefinite pronouns refer to general categories of people or things. English example: Anyone can do that.
  • Distributive pronouns are used to refer to members of a group separately rather than collectively. English example: To each his own.
  • Negative pronouns indicate the non-existence of people or things. English example: Nobody thinks that.
• Relative pronouns refer back to people or things previously mentioned. English example: People who smoke should quit now.
  • Indefinite relative pronouns have some of the properties of both relative pronouns and indefinite pronouns. They have a sense of "referring back", but the person or thing to which they refer has not previously been explicitly named. English example: I know what I like.
• Interrogative pronouns ask which person or thing is meant. English example: Who did that?
  • In many languages (e.g., Czech, English, French, Interlingua, and Russian), the sets of relative and interrogative pronouns are nearly identical. Compare English: Who is that? (interrogative) to I know who that is. (relative).

Pronouns and determiners

Pronouns and determiners are closely related, and some linguists think pronouns are actually determiners without a noun or a noun phrase.^[1] The following chart shows their relationships in English.

	Pronoun	Determiner
Personal (1st/2nd)	we	we Scotsmen
Possessive	ours	our freedom
Demonstrative	this	this gentleman
Indefinite	some	some frogs
Interrogative	who	which option

The views of different schools

Pronouns have been classified as one of the parts of speech since at least the 2nd century BC when they were included in the Greek treatise Art of Grammar. Objections to this approach have appeared among grammatical theories in the 20th century. Their grammatical heterogeneity, many-sided pronouns were underlined, which were classified as follows:^{[clarification needed]}

• "indicative words" (Karl Brugmann, Karl Bühler, Uriel Weinreich);
• "indexes" or "indicators" (Charles Sanders Peirce, William Edward Collinson);
• "words with changeable signification" (Adolf Noreen);
• "moveable identifiers" (Otto Jespersen, Roman Jakobson);
• "updating" or "means of transferring from language to speech" (Charles Bally, Émile Benveniste);
• "words of subjective-objective lexical meaning" (Alexey Peshkovsky);
• "word remnants" or "substitutes" (Lev Shcherba, Leonard Bloomfield, Zellig Harris);
• "represents" (Ferdinand Brunot);
• "survivals of special part of speech" (Viktor Vinogradov), etc.

The Azerbaijan Linguistic School denies independence of pronoun, it is not considered to be an independent part of speech, because relations between pronouns and other parts of speech are not equal and mutually exclusive, since the properties of pronouns overlap with other parts of speech as a subset of them. But this contradicts the second law of "logic division" (which reads: "Members of division should be mutually exclusive, i.e. should not overlap"). Dismemberment of all major parts of speech first to general and particular and then to abstract and concrete types shows that the place of abstract-and-general form of each part of speech is empty. The conclusion is that this is a pronoun which is traditionally (by historical inertia or under influence authority of ancient schools) separated from the other parts of speech, gathered in one class and called a pronoun. On the basis of this logic this school considers it appropriate to distribute pronouns among other parts of speech.^[2][3]